Question

Which of the following conditions are necessary for Anumana (inference) according to

 Classical Indian Logic ?

A. Cognition of the hetu (middle term) in the paksa or minor term.

B. The relation of invariable concomitance between the middle and the major term.

C. Cognition of the major term in the minor term.

D. Cognition of minor term only.

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

1. A and B only
2. B and C only
3. A, B and C only
4. A and C only

Answer 1

Correct Answer - Option 1 : A and B only

Nyaya Philosophy

• Nyaya, (Sanskrit: “Rule” or “Method”) one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy, important for its analysis of logic and epistemology. The major contribution of the Nyaya system is its working out in profound detail the means of knowledge known as inference (anumana).
• The Nyaya school holds that there are four valid means of knowledge: perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), and testimony (shabda).

Anumana:

• Anumana: Anumāna (inference) is one of the most important contributions of the Nyaya.
• It can be of two types: inference for oneself (Svarthanumana), and inference for others (Parathanumana) 
• Inference can also be classified into 3 types: Purvavat,  Sheshavat, and Samanyatodrishta 
• The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:
• There is fire on the hill (called Pratijñā, required to be proved)
• Because there is smoke there (called Hetu, reason)
• Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, e.g. in a kitchen (called Udāhārana, an example of vyāpti)
• The hill has smoke that is pervaded by fire (called Upanaya, reaffirmation or application)
• Therefore, there is fire on the hill (called Nigamana, conclusion)
• In Nyāya terminology for this example, the hill would be called as paksha (minor term), the fire is called as sādhya (major term), the smoke is called as hetu, and the relationship between the smoke and the fire is called as vyapti (middle term). 

In the above-mentioned example, three points are to be noted.

1. There is the perception of a mark or reason (hetu), (e.g. smoke) in a subject (hill).
2. There is a recollection of the relation of invariable concomitance between smoke and fire as we have observed in the past.
3. There is the inference of the existence of an unperceived object (e.g. Fire) in the subject (e.g. hill)

Hetu further has five characteristics:

1. It must be present in the Paksha,
2.  It must be present in all positive instances,
3. It must be absent in all negative instances,
4. It must not incompatible with the minor term or Paksha and
5. All other contradictions by other means of knowledge should be absent.

Conclusion:

Nyāya’s prehistory is tied to ancient traditions of debate and rules of reasoning. Every school of Indian philosophy accept perception as a valid source of knowledge. But our sense organs are limited. So we required inference, comparison, testimony, etc. From the above discussion, we come to the conclusion that statements A and B are necessary for Anumana.

Hence, option (1) is correct.