Question

NCERT Solutions Class 12, History, Chapter- 3, Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

To excel in Class 12 History and perform well in both board and competitive exams, utilizing NCERT Solutions is essential. Developed by experts, these resources clarify key chapter concepts and are aligned with the CBSE curriculum, offering crucial assistance in your studies.

In these NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History, we have discussed all types of NCERT intext questions and exercise questions.

Concepts covered in Class 12 History, Chapter- 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies, are-

• The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
• Kinship and Marriage Many Rules and Varied Practices
• Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
• Beyond Birth Resources and Status
• Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract
• Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata
• A Dynamic Text

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Answer 1

NCERT Solutions Class 12, History, Chapter- 3, Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.

Solution:

Patriliny is the system through which descent from father to son and grandson is traced. 

The principle of patriliny would have been essential for the elite families for the following reasons:

Continuity of Dynasty: As per the Dharmashastras, it was an established belief that the son carried forward the dynasty. That was the main reason that the families wished for sons not for daughters. A couplet of Rigveda also substantiates this view. In this couplet, a father at the time of the marriage of his daughter wishes that she should have best sons with the grace of Lord Shiva.

Inheritance: In royal families, the acquisition of throne was included in the inheritance. After the death of a king, his eldest son was supposed to inherit the throne. After the death of the parents, the property was to be equally divided among all the sons. In fact, parents avoided disputes in the family after their death. Most of the royal families followed the patriliny since 600 B.C. But sometimes this system had exceptions also.

• The brother of the king ascended the throne in case the former had no son.
• Relatives also claimed inheritance of the throne.
• In some special cases, women also ascended the throne like Prabhavati Gupta.

2. Discuss whether kings in early states invariably were Kshatriyas.

Solution:

As per the Dharmashastra, only Kshatriyas were supposed to be the kings. But it was also to be noted that many important ruling lineages perhaps had different origins. Mauryas were considered Kshatriyas by many people. 

• Some Brahmanical texts described Mauryas as of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas who were immediate successors of the Mauryas were Brahmanas. 
• In fact, those sections of the society controlled the political power which enjoyed support and resources. 
• It did not depend on the question of being born as Kshatriya.
• There were other rulers like Shakas who came from Central Asia. But the Brahmanas considered them as mlechchhas, barbarians, and outsiders. 
• Similarly, Gotami-putra Satkami, the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, became a destroyer of the pride of kshatriyas. 
• This we see that the Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas whereas the Brahmanas were of the opinion that the king should be Kshatriyas.

3. Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba, and Matanga.

Solution:

Drona: 

• Drona, a Brahmana, was responsible for teaching education and archery to the Kuru Dynasty princes. At that time, low-caste individuals were denied education, so Drona refused to teach Ekalavya. 
• Despite this, Ekalavya mastered archery on his own. 
• However, Drona demanded Ekalavya's right thumb as a teaching fee, which was against religious norms. 
• Drona did this to ensure that no one surpassed Arjuna in archery.

Hidimba: 

• Hidimba, a rakshasi (demoness), was a man-eater. 
• Her brother asked her to capture the Pandavas so he could eat them, but Hidimba fell in love with Bhima instead and married him. They had a son, Ghatotkacha. 
• By doing this, Hidimba ignored the usual norms of rakshasas.

Matanga: 

• Matanga, a Boddhisatta born into a Chandala family, married Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of a merchant. 
• They had a son, Mandavya Kumara, who learned the three Vedas and offered food to sixteen hundred Brahmanas daily. However, he refused to feed his father when he appeared in rags, considering him an outcast. 
• Matanga advised his son not to be proud of his birth and then vanished. 
• Dittha Mangalika sought Matanga’s forgiveness, demonstrating her devotion. Mandavya, however, failed to uphold the values of religion and generosity.

4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of a society derived from the Purusha Sukta?

Solution:

• The Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda says that the four Vamas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. The four vamas were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. These Vamas had different jobs. 
• The Brahmanas had a supreme position in society. They were also considered teachers. Kshatriyas were considered warriors. They also ran the administration. The Vaishyas were the masters of the trade. 
• The Shudras were at the lowest strata. Their duty was to serve the above three vamas. Under this Brahmanical system, birth was the only criteria to judge the status and prestige in the society.
• But the Buddhist theory of a social contract was different. As per the Buddhist concept, there was inequality in society, but this inequality was neither natural nor permanent. They did not favor the idea of birth being the criteria of social status.

5: The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Jandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:

Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona … I hold the feet of our preceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health of his son Duryodhana and his younger brother ... Also greet all the young Kuru warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons … Greet above all him, who is to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (born of a slave woman) ... I bow to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives you say this, “I hope they are well-protected”… Our daughters-inlaw born of good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those who are our daughters … The beautiful, fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of ours you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the aged, the maimed (and) the helpless …

Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position on the list.

Solution:

• Not only age, gender, and kinship ties but there were other factors too that were considered to prepare the list.
• The Brahmana, the Purohits, and the Gums have bestowed the highest honors. They all were widely respected.
• Fraternal kins were also given respect who were considered like parents. People who were of equal age or younger were placed at the third rank. In the next order, the young Kuru warriors were respected. 
• Women also received a due place. Wives, mothers, daughters-in-law, and daughters came in this order. Orphans and handicapped had also been taken care of. Yudhisthira also greets them.

Answer 2

6. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Wintemitz, wrote about the Mahabharata: “Just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature…. and contains so many kinds of things….(it) give(s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss. 

Solution:

Maurice Winternitz's perspective on the Mahabharata highlights the epic's role as a comprehensive cultural and literary phenomenon, reflecting the depth of Indian society's soul. His observations emphasize how the Mahabharata, beyond a mere story of dynastic strife, offers profound insights into various aspects of life, deeply resonating with the cultural and philosophical ethos of India.

1) Literature and Entirety: Winternitz remarks on the Mahabharata as "an entire literature" capture its vastness and diversity. The epic does not just narrate a tale of the conflict between the Pandavas and the Kauravas but delves into intricate details of human emotions, ethical dilemmas, and philosophical discourses. This expansiveness makes it a mirror to the entire spectrum of human experience and a vehicle for a comprehensive cultural expression.

2) Depth and Variety: The Mahabharata contains a myriad of stories, teachings, and characters, each contributing layers of complexity and moral questioning. From the philosophical guidance in the Bhagavad Gita to the narrative arcs of characters like Draupadi, Karna, and Arjuna, the epic explores themes of duty, righteousness, heroism, and the struggles of fate and free will. This variety provides a broad canvas that reflects the multifaceted nature of Indian culture and philosophy.

3) Insight into Indian Folk Soul: According to Winternitz, the epic provides "insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk." This is evident in the way the Mahabharata addresses universal questions through the lens of individual and social actions. The dilemmas faced by its characters under various circumstances offer audiences from all walks of life a way to introspect on the larger questions of morality and duty.

4) Cultural Reflection: The Mahabharata serves as a cultural reflection, not just in its narrative but through its integration into the everyday life of Indian society. It influences various aspects of cultural practice, including rituals, arts, and the oral storytelling tradition, embedding itself in the cultural consciousness of India.

5) Educational Role: The epic has historically played a significant educational role, used to teach moral values and life lessons. Its stories are often employed in educational settings and religious teachings, underscoring its role in shaping and reflecting societal values and norms.

Winternitz’s appreciation of the Mahabharata underscores its function not merely as an epic narrative but as a profound study in human behavior, societal norms, and philosophical inquiry. Its enduring relevance in teaching and guiding through moral and ethical complexities speaks to its deep-seated impact on Indian culture and beyond. This comprehensive approach to understanding the Mahabharata reveals why it remains a cornerstone in the study of Indian literature and a key to understanding the historical and cultural fabric of India.

7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author. 

Solution:

The Mahabharata, one of the greatest epics in the world, is a monumental and intricate work of literature that spans over 100,000 verses, making it one of the longest epics known. The question of its authorship, whether it could be the work of a single individual, invites a fascinating exploration into the text's historical, cultural, and literary contexts.

Historical Composition:

The Mahabharata was composed over a period of nearly a millennium, from approximately 500 BCE to 400 CE. This extensive timeframe alone suggests the improbability of a single author. The text reflects a succession of historical and cultural shifts, incorporating various traditions and views that evolved through centuries. Each layer added to the Mahabharata introduces new characters, sub-plots, and philosophical dilemmas, indicating contributions from multiple generations of scribes and scholars.

Multiple Recensions and Versions:

 The existence of numerous recensions and regional variations of the Mahabharata further complicates the idea of single authorship. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, a scholarly project that commenced in 1919, involved collating hundreds of manuscripts from different parts of India. This edition highlighted significant variations in narrative and philosophical content, suggesting contributions from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

Linguistic and Stylistic Diversity: 

The Mahabharata's language style changes a lot throughout the epic. Some parts use simple, direct Sanskrit that’s easy to recite and remember, while other sections use more complex, classical Sanskrit showing advanced writing skills. This variety in style suggests that different parts were written by authors with different levels of expertise and knowledge.

Integration of Diverse Traditions:

The Mahabharata encapsulates a vast array of cultural and philosophical traditions. It includes Vedic rituals, Brahmanical norms, ethical debates, and philosophical teachings such as those found in the Bhagavad Gita. The epic also integrates local legends and hero tales from across the Indian subcontinent, reflecting a tapestry of regional influences rather than the perspective of a single author.

Philosophical and Ethical Dialogues:

 One of the defining features of the Mahabharata is its engagement with complex philosophical and ethical questions. The text presents a multitude of voices and perspectives, often in dialogue or conflict with each other. The variety of ideas and lack of a single belief show that this is a shared and changing view, not just one person’s idea. 

Narrative Complexity: 

The Mahabharata’s story is very complex, mixing many smaller tales and backgrounds with the main story. Its ability to stay clear and connected shows that it was carefully put together and edited by many people over a long time.

In conclusion, the Mahabharata wasn’t written by just one person. It’s a huge collaborative project that took place over many centuries. Many poets, scholars, and sages contributed to it, creating a key piece of Indian literature and a valuable cultural artifact. This epic shows the changing spiritual and philosophical ideas of ancient India. Its richness comes from the many different voices that have contributed to it over time, each adding something special to this lasting work.

8. How important were gender differences in early societies ? Give reasons for your answer. 

Solution:

In the Mahabharata and the historical context it represents, gender differences were very important in shaping social, political, and cultural norms. The epic reflects and reinforces these gender norms, giving us a clear view of how early Indian societies viewed gender roles.

1) Patrilineal Succession: The Mahabharata highlights the importance of passing power and inheritance through male family lines, especially among the elite. This practice emphasized male dominance in families and governance, limiting women's roles in public and political life.

2) Marriage and Kinship: Marriage in the epic was used to form alliances and strengthen social structures. Women were often married off to build connections, showing their limited power in society. Marrying outside one’s social group (exogamy) was a way to extend influence and link different families and kingdoms.

3) Normative Texts and Social Practices: As part of the dharmic texts, the Mahabharata sets out specific roles for men and women, reflecting the Brahmanical norms of its time. It often places women in subservient roles, highlighting male authority in family and society.

4) Gender and Ritual Practices: The epic shows that women had important but limited roles in rituals and domestic life. Their roles often emphasized purity and obedience, reinforcing societal expectations that they should uphold family honor and social norms.

5) Economic Roles and Rights: Women in the Mahabharata mainly had economic roles within the household. Although they could own personal wealth (stridhana), their economic rights and activities were much more restricted than men’s, reinforcing their lower status in society.

6) Resistance and Agency: Despite these restrictions, some stories in the Mahabharata show women asserting their power. Characters like Draupadi challenge their situations and question injustices, offering a critique of the gender norms of their time.

7) Symbolic Representations: Women in the Mahabharata also symbolize broader themes. Characters like Kunti and Gandhari play key roles in the epic’s story and moral lessons, even though their roles are shaped by gender expectations.

In summary, the Mahabharata shows how deeply gender differences were embedded in early societies, affecting legal, economic, and cultural areas. These differences were not just reflections of reality but tools for maintaining social order, impacting the lives of both men and women.

Answer 3

9. Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed.

Solution:

Exploring historical texts like the Mahabharata reveals that Brahmanical rules about kinship and marriage were not always followed in ancient India. This shows a mix of local customs, cultural diversity, and different religious practices.

Textual Variations in the Mahabharata: The Mahabharata has different versions that show regional changes in the text. For example, Draupadi’s marriage to five Pandava brothers contrasts with the usual Brahmanical practice of monogamy and patrilineal marriage.

Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence: Inscriptions and archaeological finds often show practices that differ from Brahmanical codes. Some inscriptions mention women who owned property or were recognized for their scholarly or religious contributions, suggesting more flexible social roles.

Influence of Other Cultural and Religious Traditions: Buddhism and Jainism offer different views on social organization, often criticizing the strict Brahmanical social order. These traditions focus on individual moral development rather than rigid societal norms based on birth and gender.

Literary Sources Beyond the Mahabharata: Other ancient Indian texts, including romantic and dramatic works, show women in roles that challenge the patriarchal and patrilineal norms of Brahmanical literature. These stories often feature women with significant influence and agency.

Regional Practices and Customs: India’s diverse geography and cultures meant that local practices often differed from central religious rules. For example, matrilineal traditions in Kerala and northeastern India contrast with the patrilineal focus of Brahmanical texts, showing regional differences in kinship and marriage.

Juxtaposition of Normative and Descriptive Texts: While normative texts prescribe ideal behaviors and roles, descriptive narratives reveal varied practices that often do not match these ideals. This shows the complexity of social practices in ancient India, with Brahmanical norms being just one influence in a dynamic cultural and religious landscape. The differences in practices highlight how culture evolves in response to changing social, political, and environmental conditions.

10. Compare the map in this chapter with Map 1 in Chapter 2. List the mahajanapadas and cities located near the Kuru-Panchala lands.

Solution:

• Mahajanapadas: Kuru, Shurasena, and Matsya
• Cities: Hastinapura, Indraprastha, Mathura, and Virata